The Arctic cod, ringed+tq tdm0t1te/i o ja0us+ut00 seal, killer whale, polar bear and other organisms live and interact with each other in the cold waters of the Arctic Ocean. Which of the folli0 tot0 uqu0stjtd0m t/e+1+ aowing terms best describes them?

  Rain forests are known to have tall trees and a large biomass with high papu9ck*zz0o iq- op2p . i6ax5roductivity, despite infertile26izp5q p o0xi* c9paa.- kzuo soils. The growing conditions have been known to nurture the presence of many interdependent organisms. These species also interact with the physical environment they inhabit.

Which of the following is described here?

  A wetland plant called sea-blite, which has narrow suazfn;8h, oygc.oewkfjc m4u4 (9.oz)cculent leaves, and a tough perenial salt grass both grow on the edge of a salt marsh in Bolsa Chica, California. What statistical test can be used to determine i9cz,wo h(k;.jnc foey8fuo g.)zm 4 a4f the two species are found growing together more than would be expected by random chance?

  Which of the following can be detebx e)a: db/mh0x5i3narmined using the chi-squared test?

  Which parts of insect-pollinated flowers are adaptations for mutualistic relatio7o* dv jvgb2o;/o 7kvinships with pollv77/ob *iovoj; dgv2k inators?
I. Nectary
II. Coloured petals
III. Stigma

  The okapi looks like a small-sized giraffe and has stripes t *fy r8fh)t.tohat resemble the zebra. hty 8tofr*.)f It lives in the Ituri Forest in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Okapis eat the leaves and buds of trees they can reach. They also graze on grass and ferns and eat fruit. Okapis tend to be solitary animals and the mother gives birth to one offspring which continues to be dependent on the mother’s milk for six months. When they are four to five years old, they are mature and can breed, but only with other okapis.
Which of the following statements is applicable to the okapi?
I. Okapi is a hybrid of a giraffe and a zebra
II. Okapi is an herbivore
III. Okapi is its own species

  From the statements listed, which can be conimn.r7s9 v3ke.e*nfn7qbj 4 ysidered true of invasive but not nativrny94.en qe7fjnm i.s7 *v 3bke species?

  What is the correct de5n3*abfb.)ccpuotmp yy,fz5r; 9 d4m y3mog+scription of 'interspecific competition’?

During a field day, students were 6 )9gzkvr;qdj asked to investigate the effect of soil salinity on the distribution of plant species. Students designed an experiment that measured the number of plant species found dz69gvjrq; k) up the shore at varying distances from the high tide line. Three groups of students investigated three sites on the same shore. The distance from the high tide line was taken as an indication of the salinity levels. The results are shown in the table.

1.(1)Identify the independent variable.
(2)Outline the steps students could take, and the equipment they could use, to collect their results.
2.(1)Suggest a reason for the discrepancy in the number of species sampled in areas 1, 2, and 3.
(2)Describe a way the students could reduce the impact of discrepancies on their collected data.
3.The different species of plants found in each area were recorded in a table.

4.Evaluate the students’ investigation into salinity's effect on plant species distribution.

  Which statement(s) describes allelopathy in plao/; a2+civgl8lqr )y,h bay, o2lt. wmnts?
I. Allelopathy is the process by which a plant releases secondary metabolites that inhibit the growth of other plants.
II. Allelopathy is the presence of mechanical defences such as thorns and spines in plants.
III. Allelopathy may involve a decreased cell elongation rate in one plant species in response to a chemical secreted by another plant species.

A student wants to set up an aquatic mek+8j(kydf+x xsocosm using seawater to simulate conditions in the food web (shown in t8+ (xkyf d+jkxhe image below) and test its stability. He used seawater and sand from the area to set up the system and added some small organisms to the mesocosm.

1.In the food web shown, identify an autotroph.
2.State a reason why phytoplankton shown in the food web would be a good addition to the mesocosm.
3.Discuss how saprotrophs perform a necessary function for the mesocosm.
4.Describe the disadvantages of using mesocosms in scientific investigations.

A student had a small pond in the backyarq5drcy 5 waab43kl16c d and wanted to add some fish. The fish would be predators of the pond and feed on the zooplankton (prey) growing in the pond. Zooplankton are small floating or weakly54bdc c135kyraa qwl6 swimming organisms that are dependent on the phytoplankton or algae for their supply of nutrition.

She wanted to first determine whether Fish A or Fish B would be more suitable, or if both fish could be added to the pond. As a trial, she set up four mesocosms using water from the pond. She monitored the mesocosms and then added the fish to three of the mesocosms as shown. She took samples of water from the different mesocosms and tested it for chlorophyll content at a research lab nearby.


（1）Outline why the mesocosms used would be considered a ‘closed system’.
（2）Describe why adding mud or soil to the mesocosms would be advantageous.
（3）Outline the reason for including ‘Mesocosm A’ with the experiment.
（4）Explain the reason for monitoring chlorophyll content to analyze the effects of the fish as a predator.
State another variable that could be monitored to see the effect of adding fish to the mesocosms.
The following table shows the results obtained for chlorophyll (μg dm
-3
) with the different additions of fish.

1.Describe the process by which detri8a lc)j 1t m4cz*kwlq-tivores and saprotrophs obtain nutrition.
2.Describe how a quadrat can be used to estimate the population of poppies in a field.
3.Energy and nutrients move through ecosystems differently. Describe how energy and nutrients move through terrestrial ecosystems.

  The cyclical variations in the population densities of a predator and its pbof+;4r lck avm,h/ p/rey are shown in the imagf/ocpab/,r mv4 ;klh+ e below.

Which of the following factors may have the least direct effect on the populations of the predator and prey species depicted here?

  Which of the following does not apply to predatn0kqwyob6 rs-ofp5 al ix(h1;ta 9- )mor-prey relationships?

Two different mesocosms were sjk ,1gn hbr(.zf-w d0q+vk.kused for a study to understand the population dynamics of two ecosystems, one without fish (C ) and one with fish (F). Each mesocosm had the following added to it: two different species of snails and the same (one) species of phytoplankton. The snails feed on the p w,0-(r.vk k1fg.zjhkn bsq+ dhytoplankton and are, in turn, preyed upon by the fish.

The following diagrams show the mesocosms used for the study. C is the control without fish, and F is the experimental mesocosm with one fish added. Both mesocosms were maintained at the same temperature and light conditions.


After a period of time, as shown in the graph below, the density of phytoplankton was seen to vary in the two mesocosms used in the study.
1.Outline a reason for the variation seen in the density of the phytoplankton in the two mesocosms, as shown above.
2.Explain whether this is indicative of a top-down or bottom–up control of the simulated ecosystem.

The white clover (Trifolium repens) is native to the fields arc/w9q.n,n4 lj 8lzeke ound Cornell University. The image shows a 10m x 15m area of the park, where quadrats (1m2) were used to measure the number of white clover in the fields. The resultsz je9/q4k,.e nlwlcn8 from 10 of the quadrats are also shown below.

1.Describe how quadrats could be used to estimate the mean number of white clover in the field.
2.Calculate the mean number of white clover in the field, showing your working.
3.Explain why this type of sampling can only be used for sessile or immobile organisms.
4.Suggest two limitations of quadrat sampling.
5.State the statistical test that could be conducted to check if white clover are associated with another organism in the field.
6.There are nitrogen fixing bacteria in the root nodules of the white clover. State two ways that the white clover uses the nitrogen provided by the bacteria.

Scientists conducted studies to understand interspecificca c xvs4*. x;b95czcp foraging behaviour overlap in Fiji’s forest birds. They observed the z5vxbpc.*cs ac9c4x ; foraging behaviour of three types of birds on the main island of Viti Levu: nectarivores, insectivores and omnivores. The recorded data on the vertical partitioning of the different birds are shown below.
On the island of Viti Levu, the box and whisker plots below show the range, interquartile range and median for the results obtained for three species of nectarivores, two species of insectivores and two species of omnivores.

1.Distinguish between the terms ‘intraspecific’ and ‘interspecific’.
2.Describe the differences seen in the foraging heights of the different species of nectarivores, as seen in the interquartile range shown in the box and whisker plots.
3.Outline the similarities in foraging heights of nectarivores, insectivores and omnivores, based on the interquartile range shown in the box and whisker plots.
Further studies were carried out on the birds. The vertical foraging height of the Orange-breasted Myzomela honeyeater bird was recorded in the coastal forest in Leleuvia island, where they are the only honeyeater species, and on the main island of Viti Levu, where it lives alongside two other honeyeater species. The average height of the trees on Leleuvia was 15 m and on Viti Levu it was 26 m. The data is therefore normalised for comparison and shown as relative foraging height (foraging height/mean height of tree). The box and whisker plots show the range, interquartile range and median for the results when competitors are absent (Leleuvia island) and when competitors are present (Viti Levu).



4.Discuss the foraging behaviour of the Myzomela honeyeater species with and without the presence of competing nectarivore bird species.1
5.Comment on the challenges of obtaining data in field studies compared to laboratory experiments.